4th Year
Henry James and F. Scott Fitzgerald convey the truth of human life through psychological realism, focusing on instability and perception, yet in distinct ways. While Henry James portrays his central characters, Daisy and Winterbourne, through social perception, Fitzgerald focuses on psychological torment and the progression of moral decomposition. Daisy represents rigid social norms and judgment, whilst Fitzgerald’s protagonist, Dick Diver, represents mental decline and instability. Both authors explore the instability of modern society and the negative outcomes of identity formation. Lived experience and morality form the character’s transition: in Fitzgerald’s case, the decline in mental stability and its fragility, and Daisy’s experience with American ideals in a European society, both resulting in a deeply negative outcome. Henry James presents truth as uncertain and ultimately shaped by societal understanding, whereas Fitzgerald presents it as unstable and prone to collapse.
Henry James and Scott Fitzgerald represent the inner lives of their protagonists in contrasting ways. James relies solely on social perception, whilst Fitzgerald focuses on psychological exposure. Daisy is often misinterpreted, presented as “extremely innocent” (James, loc. 171), which suggests exaggeration rather than certainty that the truth of Daisy’s character is fabricated through social judgment rather than immediately known. Daisy’s behaviour is initially understood as harmless, whilst later being judged against contrasting European social expectations. As Martinez Serrano argues (2016), Daisy is “an innocent young woman and a free spirit amidst an Old World” (p.2), highlighting how her behaviour is shaped through misunderstanding and rigid social conventions. Therefore, as a woman, she is misread and represented as defiant, revealing how rigid social norms can distort impressions and prevent others from understanding her as an individual. This is reflected in the contrast between European and American expectations of womanhood, highlighting how female behaviour is interpreted and judged within gender norms. This is reinforced through Winterbourne’s perspectives, who declares “American girls are the best girls” (James, loc. 77), reflecting his early desire for Daisy and contrasting with his later judgment and his misinterpretation of her as an individual. Daisy’s experience is described as “the first existential ordeal, crisis or encounter” (Ohmann, 1964, p. 1), illustrating how her identity is shaped by misunderstanding. As a result, her inner life remains ambiguous, interpreted through Winterbourne’s personal desire and heavily influenced by rigid social expectations and the disapproval of his aunt, Mrs Costello. While Henry James uses ambiguity, Fitzgerald provides direct access to the psychological experience of his main characters, Dick and Nicole Diver. Their inner lives are revealed through emotional depth and narrative structures that contrast the two characters, emphasising the fragility of the human mind and engaging the reader in their deterioration.
Fitzgerald and James use moral decline to outline their stories; James uses social judgment in Daisy Miller, whilst Fitzgerald applies psychological decline in Tender is the Night. This contrast demonstrates a different form of moral truth in understanding the morality of Daisy Miller, Dick Diver, and Nicole Diver. Dick is initially described as “kind and charming” (Fitzgerald, p.20), establishing an early sense of stability and sociability, which contrasts with the later decline both psychologically and morally. Unlike Fitzgerald, James employs a socially constructed form of judgment external to Daisy. Daisy Miller, as an American woman, is conflicted with European ideals. She is judged to be improper, defiant, and inconsiderate of European expectations of women. She is considered morally uncertain and influenced by society as a whole; her American appearance and expression are offensive, as demonstrated by Mrs Costello’s depictions of Daisy, which she mentions to Daisy’s romantic love interest, Winterbourne. Therefore, morality in Henry Jame’s Daisy Miller is shaped by rigid social expectations. While James exposes moral truth and its distortion by social judgment, Fitzgerald explores how that truth collapses through psychological decline, with both stories highlighting distinct truths about humanity and identity. Kodal (2019) argues that the protagonist Dick Diver’s tragic fall demonstrates how psychological instability leads to both moral decline and the fragility of identity.
In comparison, Fitzgerald implements psychological decline to shape morality, where Dick Diver experiences a gradual moral decline because of mental health issues. As Tariq (2016) argues, “the novel concerns itself with the repression of trauma; the covering up of past traumatic experiences” (p.1), which is reflected in Nicole’s psychological instability. Dick Diver turns to alcohol and unstable relationships as coping mechanisms. Fitzgerald expresses a steep decline in psychological stability and the collapse of professional integrity as a psychiatrist. His dependence on alcohol and unstable personal relationships mirror his inability to maintain composure, illustrating that morality within Fitzgerald’s writing is linked to mental health issues. As Dick Diver’s mental health deteriorates, he also loses his ability for ethical judgment, revealing that identity is fragile and vulnerable to collapse. However, Dick admits that “I don’t seem to be interested in anything except my work” (Fitzgerald, p. 163), an early identity imbalance in which professionalism dominates his personal life, foreshadowing his psychological deterioration.Tariq (2016) additionally suggests that Dick and Nicole construct a façade, a performance to hide their internal trauma from the outside world, avoiding therapeutic actions and instead maintaining an appearance of both psychological and moral stability.
My explanations of both Daisy Miller and Tender is the Night present strongly contrasting depictions of identity. While James portrays the self as ambiguous and unknown, Fitzgerald confronts the reader as unstable, collapsing and deteriorating. Daisy Miller places ambiguity over its main character, Daisy, who is never fully understood and judged by individuals such as Mrs Costello and Winterbourne. Her identity is understood through outward depiction rather than inward; she therefore remains unclear within the story. As a result, her identity remains unknowable, and her character is limited. In contrast, whilst Dick Diver is initially mentally stable, he gradually falls apart, becoming fragmented and psychologically unstable. Fitzgerald portrays that identity is volatile; it could further be argued that Dick maintains moments of introspection and self-awareness during his decline, but this self-awareness doesn’t prevent his psychological deterioration, reinforcing that his mental capacity cannot withstand his psychological and social influences. To summarise, James presents identity as ambiguous and unknowable, shaped by societal perception, whilst Fitzgerald presents it as unstable and unable to withstand the pressures of the modern or post-war era. The contrast between the two novels reveals that human life isn’t fixed; it is shaped through perception and ultimately, for both protagonists, psychological instability. James suggests that individuals are ambiguous and cannot be fully understood, while Fitzgerald exposes the instability of identity, illustrating how the self can collapse under psychological and social expectations.
References
James, H. (1878). Daisy Miller
Fitzgerald, F.S. (1934) Tender is the Night
Kodal, A. (2019). Tragic downfall of promising psychologist Dick Diver. *Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 4*(1), 440–447. https://doi.org/10.33905/bseusbed.498722
Martínez Serrano, L. M. (2023). A whole mind, an unconquered eye: Self-reliance and freedom in Henry James’s *Daisy Miller*. *Complutense Journal of English Studies, 31*, e88056. https://doi.org/10.5209/cjes.88056
Ohmann, C. (1964). Daisy Miller: A study of changing intentions. *American Literature, 36*(1), 1–11. https://doi-org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/10.2307/2923496
Tariq, A. (2016). The persistence of trauma in *Tender Is the Night*. Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/29030839/The_Persistence_of_Trauma_in_Tender_is_the_Night
